The Decision Process in Operations

Abstract The paper explores the concept of decision-making as it applies in a business organization or any other organization. The meaning of decision-making as well as the necessary steps that are taken to ensure effective decision-making process is also tackled. Some typical situations that may require an effective decision-making are also described alongside practical examples that involve effective decision-making.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Decision Process in Operations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In addition, a case study is given on how effective decision making enabled an automobile company to recover from its loss of market share and is currently set to beat competitors. The paper also discusses problems that can be faced in the process, as well as some decisions that can be made, and some tools that are applicable in the decision-making process. Introduction Decision-making is an essential task in any organization. Whether it is a business or not-for-profit organizations, the management of the organization is often faced with situations that would call for choice of appropriate option from a collection of many possible options available. Regardless of the type of organization considered, the main factors that will influence decision-making process are the associated costs and time. These two scarce factors need to be minimized in any decision to be taken. Often, the management would want an activity to be completed within the shortest time and at the lowest cost possible. It is worth acknowledging that it may not be practical to minimize both cost and time. In real instances, if one attempts to reduce time required for a particular activity, then the cost would rise; the converse is also true. Thus, in such decision-making processes, the approach would be to have a trade-off between time and cost until an optimal point is reached. What this means is that, a manager would first establish the time it requires to complete a particular task using the available resources, and then, considering the possibility of reducing time, the manager would decide to put in more resources so that the task is completed in a shorter period. This process is continued, with the outcome being evaluated until it will be uneconomical to increase the cost further. That will be the optimal point and the decision will be drawn from that point. This is just one scenario that involves decision-making process. The same could be witnessed in other scenario, with different factors like labour availability. However, the objective will always be to have the best option from several alternatives, and the best alternative will always be one that minimizes the total operation costs and time.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Definition Decision-making can b e regarded as a set of criteria aimed at selecting a course of action from the possible alternatives available. In a business setting, decision-making is a cognitive procedure that requires brainstorming of all economic forces affecting the operations and influencing the process. McGuigan, Moyer, and Harris (2002) pointed out that â€Å"the ability to make good decisions is the key to successful managerial performance† (p5). The decisions to be made can be as simple as deciding on the price to charge for a product or the quantity of a product to be produced. However, the real business setting often comprises situations that are more complex. Steps in decision-making process The principles in operations management should be applied by every manager faced with decision-making (Horvà ¡thovà ¡ 2010, p3). The decision-making process includes several steps most of which are common to all sectors in which the process is required. A typical structure would entail the following step s. Problem definition The initial step in any decision-making is defining the problem upon which a decision is to be made. Ideas that are developed here will be carried forward to the latter stages and thus, it should be carried out with care. Depending on the nature of the decisions that are to be made, there will always be a need to brainstorm general situations prevailing and come up with various appropriate ideas. If a decision has to be made following the sequence of events that had been witnessed in the past, coming up with ideas may not be a very demanding task. However, the situation is quite demanding if the decision follows an abnormal trend, yet a completely fresh decision has to be made. Nevertheless, a better cognitive understanding of the whole environment will enable the management to come up with ideas that are less prone to risk (McLucas 2003, p4). Gathering the relevant information This is also an essential step since the information to be obtained will form the ba sis upon which a decision has to be made. It requires a lot of expertise to ensure that the right information is obtained. If the decision has to be made in relation to previous experiences, data recorded in the previous cases can be retrieved.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Decision Process in Operations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, much more effort needs to be put in developing a course of action that had not been taken before. For instance, obtaining the response from the public concerning use of a product to be introduced into the market requires a lot of accuracy and precision. Formulating the objectives Having obtained relevant information, the next move is to formulate the objectives to be fulfilled in relation to the assessments that have been done. It has been noted that ‘the failure to identify organizational objectives correctly can result in the complete rejection of an otherwise well-conceived and well-implemented plan’ (McGuigan, Moyer Harris 2002, p5). The existing forces that could be identified are defined here as constraints that will govern the decision making process. This will include factors such as the available capital, labor that can be provided, or time to complete a task. As Li (2009) reported, â€Å"constraints are regarded as high-priority objectives, which must be satisfied in the process of generating alternatives.† These constraints will depend on the context in which a decision is to be made. Developing the strategies There is a need to develop strategies that can be used to realize response objectives laid out. The theories that are derived from economics will enable managers to set up the objective functions, as well as constraints involved in the decision process (McGuigan, Moyer Harris, 2002, p.5). The process also includes developing the techniques that will be used to ensure that the strategies that hav e been formed are implemented. Usually, the problems will be defined as numerical expression. The decision-maker needs to ensure a correct expression is given that describes the problem set. The implications of the results that will be realized should also be clear. Therefore, there is need for procedure that checks if the optimality has been attained.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Checking the feasibility of the solution Having developed strategies to ensure attainment of an optimal solution to the problem, there is need to check if the solution is compatible with all factors that had been given. The feasibility of the developed strategies is evaluated according to the forces that are acting within the organization and from outside. There is need to evaluate how other emerging factors may eventually affect the steps to be taken. Some decisions like site location are very crucial and should be carefully planned (Horvà ¡thovà ¡ 2010, p4). First, identify, at this point, the advantages and disadvantages that may be encountered when these strategies are actually implemented. This will remove the guilt from the decision-maker if something unexpected happens in the end. There is also a need to check if the steps are actually practical and can be implemented. It may not be the case that all that has been proposed can be put into practice. Thus, should there be a d eviation from what was expected, then, there is need to revise the strategies where necessary. However, it should be noted that most of the problems encountered would require solutions, some of which may be conflicting. The best approach is to adopt a multiple optimization technique that will come closer to satisfying most of the key constraints that are given (Li 2009, p3). Developing an implementation plan The strategies that have been developed will finally need to be put into practice. Thus, the next step is to develop the action plan that will ensure that the above goals are realized. The plan will include results that were realized in examining the feasibility and the practicality of the strategies developed. It will give an outline of courses of action to be taken and the associated costs or time as appropriate. Seeking permission Decision-making in an organization will differ from that made on an individual basis. If an operations manager makes a particular decision independ ently, then the consequences that follow from such decisions will be solely bestowed on him/her. Thus, the best approach is to seek the final say from relevant authority, as this will remove the fear of failure or procrastination. Implementation of the procedures The final step is to put the procedures that had been laid down into practice. Efforts should be made to ensure that the procedures are correctly implemented as had been designed. This could be achieved through constant monitoring and evaluation of the implementation processes (McGuigan, Moyer Harris 2002, p6). Situations requiring decision-making As human beings, we are always faced with situations where we have to choose from the alternatives that are available depending on our abilities. To satisfy the basic human needs, we are faced with decisions-making situations that need fulfillment depending on the economic constraints available. Owing to the scarcity in resources that we always have, we would always want to have our needs fulfilled as cheaply as possible. We would always want the services to be given to us as fast as possible. A similar scenario is witnessed in the decisions to be made in an organization, whether it is a business organization or not-for-profit organization. The time and cost factors will be common to every organization. Some few situations that require effective decision-making processes in an organization are described below. Consider a manager who wants to assign duties to different employees within a department in an organization. There is a project that comprises seven tasks to be performed and fortunately, seven employees are available, each of whom can handle any of the tasks. However, the employees have different abilities of performing each of the tasks, while the management wants the whole project completed within the shortest possible time. There is also information about time that each employee can take when performing a particular task. The manager here is charg ed with a duty to assign these employees to the task to minimize the total time that will be taken to complete the whole activity. A beverage production company produces and distributes to various retail warehouses; this company has four production sites and six warehouses to be served. These production sites and warehouses are all linked and any site can supply to any warehouse. The cost of transportation from one site to a warehouse is dependent on the distance to be covered and the quantity of items transported. The capacities of each warehouse, the production ability of each site, and the cost of transport of given units of items from the different sites to warehouses are all known. The problem is to come up with a system that will ensure that all the warehouses are supplied with the products from the sites such that the total transportation cost is minimized. This will call for an effective decision-making. The real business setting will have complex versions of the problem; fo r instance, it can further be noted that the road connecting site Q and warehouse D is not currently passable due to an upgrading process that is underway. This additional constraint needs to be considered in solving the problem. A company A that provides mobile services has been dominating a market for a long period. Suddenly, another service provider B emerges with reduced call rates alongside other benefits and he is providing very stiff competition in the market. The company A has noticed the sudden decrease in sales and the total revenue that has been recorded in the recent past and he has felt that something needs to be done. It has the options of reducing the call rates, increasing the advertisements, incorporating sales promotion techniques like offers, coming up with other attractive services within the network, as well as entering into partnership with companies that deal in mobile devices. The management has to come up with a model that is most appropriate in solving the problem that has emerged. All these alternatives have associated costs and benefits. A decision will be made that include one or more of the objectives following an extensive cost-benefit analysis Typical decision-making process Example 1 A 50ha farm is to be used for growing beans and maize. The manager of the farm has noted that the capital that is available to carry out the activity is $1800. It has also been reported that to cultivate a hectare of beans costs $45 while that of maize costs $30. A hectare can produce 50 bags of maize or 30 bags of beans. A bag of maize costs $25 while that of beans costs $40. The farm has been subdivided into 50 manageable subunits and it is desired that no unit contain a mixture of the two crops. The problem is to allocate the farm to the two crops so that a maximum return is obtained. Now, the manager has identified the problem and stated that the objective is to have maximum returns. The return will depend on the proportion of the farm allocate d to each of the crops. From the given data, a hectare of maize will return $1250 while that of beans will return $1200. Let B represents the hectares allocated for beans and M represents those allocated for maize. Then mathematically, the objective can be stated as: Maximize P= 1200B +1250M The next move is to identify the forces from within and from without that may affect the decision variables. Mathematically, the variables M and B cannot assume negative values. Then, the expenditure cannot exceed the amount that is available to be used. Lastly, the total number of hectares cannot exceed what is at hand. There is also a condition that B and M must not be fractions. Thus, we have a set of constraints that the above objective function must satisfy as follows: B, M= 0 B+M= 50 45B+30M= 1800, B and M are integers. The application of linear programming techniques on the above problem will give the optimal solution as B=0 and M=50. This implies that it will be more profitable to cultiv ate maize in the whole farm. The overall return, which is $62500, is the highest return that can be received given the restrictions. Effective Decision-making at Ford Motors Company: A case study Ford Motors Company is the fourth largest manufacturer of automobiles in the world. It is based in the United States and has operations in other foreign countries as well. The company lost the market share steadily in the period 1995-2009. On the hand, the company recorded an increase in share of its operations in the European nations. The difference was caused by the increase in the cost of the manufacturing facilities and increased wages in the United States and the increased cost of healthcare and the pension schemes that were practiced in the US. The company therefore developed certain strategies to improve its operations. The management adopted a strategic plan referred to as ‘ONE Ford’ plan. This characterized by a spirit of One Team, One Plan, and One Goal. This included restructuring its operations so that it could still gain profit despite the decrease that was observed in the demand for such automobiles. As a move to reduce the cost, the company dismissed some of its employees and closed down some seven factories in the United States. It also shifted from manufacturing of large tracks and settled on a single line of small automobiles that have less fuel consumption. The management was responding to the energy crisis that was being experienced and the political wave that was advocating for vehicles with less fuel consumption. This showed the management’s ability to identify and respond to external economic forces. Through the One Team plan, the management has succeeded in including all the stakeholders in the management process. There is a room for the opinions from the employees at the lower level. Other incentives like healthcare and employee benefit schemes were also put in place. The company also initiated programs that would give serv ices back to the community like the Ford Motor Company Fund and Community services. This was a way of building its reputation among the customers. Ford Motor Credit Company was a scheme started to offer loans and leases on cars. Effective decision-making has helped Ford Motor Company regain their lost share in the global automobile market. A strategic plan that was developed has improved the operations and sales of the company. The strategies that were adopted by Ford Company have seen the company increases its sales and surpass the other competitors like Toyota since FY2009. An Annual Report of FY2009 showed that the net income was $2.7 billion, the best result to be recorded since 2005 (para1). An increase of $7.3 billion was also observed in the pre-tax operating profit from the figure in 2008. The company is set to penetrate deeper into the market as it is set to more new quality product. Problems facing managerial decision-making process There are certain factors that threaten the process of decision-making, and which make it the most challenging task to the operations managers. However, most of these challenges can be eliminated by following the right decision-making procedures. Besides, the personnel that are to be involved in operation management need to be conversant with the necessary management techniques and their relevance to the particular organizations they serve in. Procrastination This refers to a situation where a decision has been made and a course of action taken that is of lower benefit to the organization. It refers to a failure to give higher priority to procedures that would benefit the organization the most and instead major on the low priority activities. For instance, it occurs when the management of an organization wanted to introduce a new product to replace an existing product. If proper prior analysis is not taken, it may turn out that the new deal is less productive than the previous one. The managers will then bear the blame fo r having misguided the organization. In order to prevent this, the operations managers should seek permission from the other top management concerning the course of action to be taken. This is one of the key steps involved in risk management. The manager must just accept the fact that his/her single opinion and knowledge may not be sufficient in managing risk. Instead, there is need for the manager to seek the understanding of the other managers on the matter that requires decision-making (McLucas, 2003, p7). The other managers could have gained a longer working experience and they are thus better placed to handle the situation. In effect, the top management will also be responsible for any negative effects that the decision could have on the operations of the organization. Besides, adopting the right decision-making procedures would help reduce the possibility of such cases. Lack of appropriate approach The decision-making process could be a nightmare if the personnel involved do n ot have the technical expertise that is required in formulating and implementing the procedures. If incompetent personnel is deployed anywhere in the process, then the process is deemed to fail and this will stigmatize the process. For instance, the problem can be well defined by the management. However, when it comes to gathering the relevant information, there may be no proper personnel to do the job. What will follow are decision-making procedures being carried out based on wrong data. Lack of clarity This is caused by the inability of the management personnel to give view clear of the problem to be solved. This often occurs when the manager is faced with a complex decision-making process. To ensure clarity, the manager should be able to break the complex problems down to simpler units and explain the implications of each decision procedure. In many cases, the objectives of a solving a problem will be described a mathematical expression. Firstly, there should be a clear conversio n of the problem into a numerical expression. Then the personnel should be able to give the implications of the mathematical expression to other members of the organization who are also included in the process. Everyone should be conversant with the model before contributing to the process. Fear of failure of the course of action taken There are time when then mangers are forced to make decisions amidst some unknown conditions. The general constraints that determine the course of action may not be available. The managers would then make the decisions but with a fear that they would probably. A typical approach to do away with such fear is to include the top management in the decision process. They should identify the risks and uncertainties that may impede the realization of the goals and objectives the have been set. Then there should be an analysis of a possibility of failure. A good implementation plan will include the likelihood/probability that such a program might fail followi ng the examination of the situations that had been experienced in the past. The advantages and disadvantages that are associated with such a decision should be outlined so that it should not be a surprise if anything negative happens. Types of decision-making The decisions that are made in an organization can be categorized in different ways. The decisions can be considered in terms of the parties that were involved and the degree of freedom that was given to the parties. It can also be categorized according to the information that was available during the decision-making procedures. The decisions can also be grouped according to the lifetime of the course of action to be taken and the period within which such a course of action is to be taken. In terms of the parties involved, the decisions can be categorized as being authoritative, consultative, facilitative, or delegative. A decision is authoritative if the decision-maker, e.g. the operations manager, has the sole mandate of maki ng the decisions. The other members of the organization have to follow the action plan that has been designed. This type of decision-making requires that the leader have the expertise that is required; otherwise, the decisions reached will not be beneficial to the organization. However, it has the advantage that the process does not take much time. In a facilitative decision-making, the principle decision-maker only leads the process and the other lower-level members of the organizations are involved. This is a typical of what can be termed as participatory management (McLucas 2003, p5). It has the advantage that the leader might get assistance from his/her juniors who might be better placed in handling certain emerging issues that may be addressed. Its odds are experienced when involving the junior staff brings in more ideas making the situation too complex to deal with. It also involves many people; therefore, much more time and resources need to be spent as compared to the author itative decision-making process. Besides, some of the staff may not be willing to share their views in the matter (McLucas 2003, p5). Consultative decision-making is similar to facilitative except that here the final decision still rests on the principle leader. It might as well be disadvantageous especially if the leader is not very competent. The consultations will require more time and resource just as the facilitative decision process. In delegative decision-making, the principle power distributes the decision tasks to the junior staff. This requires that the junior staff be conversant with the contents of the problems that need to be addressed. If the junior staff given such responsibilities are competent enough, then the delegative decision-making process will be faster and more reliable the others. Depending on the lifetime and implementation period, we could have quick decisions, permanent/irreversible decisions, temporary decisions, delayed decisions, conditional decisions, and experimental decisions. The permanent decisions are those that are made with a final ruling. They cannot be revised and they are to stay in the organization for a very long period. Such decisions will only be revised if other external forces eventually find their way into the operations of the organization. In many, permanent decisions are used when there were no alternatives from which the management could make a choice. On the other hand, the temporary decisions are made when there were several equivalent alternatives from which the choice could be made. They are subject to corrections in case the course of action that was taken is yielding any fruit. Delayed decisions have the same approach. A decision is arrived at, but the implementation is delayed for some period. During this period, the odds that can be associated with such a decision will be identified and the necessary reinforcement can be done before it is finally implemented. If the odds are found to be extreme, then it can be revised and other alternatives be examined. The conditional decisions are made when the alternatives that could be chosen are left open. The performance of the course of action taken is evaluated with respect to the other alternatives and further judgment can be made. The right course of action may not be clear to the management even though the destination may be visible. A typical approach would be to experiment on a particular objective and evaluate the results. If it turns out that the action are beneficial and can be implemented, then they are considered for implementation. Such an initial decision is experimental. Depending on the information that is available at the time of decision-making, the decisions categorized as decisions with certainty, decisions under risks, decisions under uncertainty, or decisions under unknowingness (McGuigan, Moyer Harris 2002, p49). A decision is under certainty if each of the possible alternatives is known to yield a particular patte rn. The decision is under risk if the alternatives are known to one of the many known outcomes with a given likelihood measure. The decision is under uncertainty if the above probabilities cannot be given. Finally, the decision is under unknowingness if the outcomes of the course of action taken cannot be known. The first two can be grouped as programmed decisions and the last two as non-programmed decisions. The programmed decisions are those that are regularly made. The managers can often relate the situations that had been experienced in the past and the decisions that were made to solve the problems. They are usually decisions that had been made in the previous cases and the management has set out procedures to be followed when similar situations are expected to occur. A course of action can then be developed from the experiences. For instance, the number of visitors to some beach hotel is known to increase during holidays. The manager can decide to increase inventory as well as the workers in order to be able meet the foreseen demand. The decisions here will be guided by the results that had been recorded in the past. It is not completely void of risk. Some of the conditions that prevailed in the past may have changed and so there may be a deviation of what occurs from what was expected. However, the risks involved can be estimated and evaluated against the consequences of the current situations. On the other hand, the non-programmed decisions are those that the management of an organization is forced to make following the external forces that are prevailing. They are not planned and do not follow a predefined guidelines. This is particularly because the causative factors may not follow a predictable pattern and so they are not based on any experience. Besides, the decisions do have an impact on the running of organizations since they usually involve an introduction of a completely different course of action. An example can be seen when the product of com pany loses fame in the market and the sales have reduced remarkably. The management has decided to abandon the product and deal in another one that is thought to be doing better in the market. Such decisions will only depend on the ability of the managers to react to complex and urgent situations arising in business. Much of it will rely on the intuition of the managers and their ability in making judgments. These decision-making processes are subject to many risks and should only be used when there is a need for it. Some techniques and tools used in decision-making process Effective decision-making process will require the application of various methods and tools. The decision-maker will be better placed in handling the process if he/she has a wide knowledge of these techniques. Cost-benefit analysis All the decisions that are to be made have associated costs and benefits. A good understanding of the techniques involved will help come up with a strategy (strategies) that has (have) the lowest costs and highest benefits. Decision trees This helps in identifying the relationships between different options Grid analysis The techniques here are applicable in a situation that deals with many alternatives. It helps choose an alternative from the many possible ones. Force Field Analysis This will help in identifying the forces that are for and against a course of action to be taken. Each force will have a weight, which will indicate its direction and strength in relation to the possible alternatives. Conclusion The concept of decision-making is an essential element in the management of every organization. It requires that the decision-maker be conversant with the various areas that would involve such decisions otherwise wrong decisions may be reached. There is also need to have decision-making process that includes a number of the stakeholder of the organization. Individual decision-making may pose problems to the manager should the initiative land the organization into a ditch. References Horvà ¡thovà ¡, P. (2010). The Use of Operations Management Procedures in Order to Increase Organizations Competitiveness under the Conditions of Growing Pressures of Globalization. An International Journal from Global Business and Management Research, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010 pp. 33-40 Li, D. (2009). Relative Ratio Method for Multiple Attribute Decision-making Problems. International Journal of Information Technology Decision Making World Scientific Publishing Company, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2009) 289–311. McGuigan, J., Moyer, R. and Harris, F. (2002). Managerial economics: Applications, Strategy and Tactics. Ninth edition. Cincinnati: Thomson Learning. McLucas, A. (2003). Decision-making: risk management, systems thinking, and situation awareness. Canberra: Argos Press. This research paper on The Decision Process in Operations was written and submitted by user Muhammad S. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Advanced French Verb Conjugation

Advanced French Verb Conjugation Conjugation refers to the five possible inflections of a verb: Person, Number, Mood, Tense, and Voice. Once youve made a choice from each of these five, you have a conjugation or inflection. For example:Verb - parlerPerson - first personNumber - singularMood - indicativeTense - presentVoice - active je parleVerb - allerPerson - third personNumber - pluralMood - subjunctiveTense - presentVoice - active quils aillentWhen conjugating a French verb, the first things to figure out are the tense and mood, which work hand-in-hand. All moods have at least two tenses (present and past) out of the possible 8 (only the indicative has all 8). The verb timeline lists moods horizontally and tenses vertically.The indicative is the most common mood and is normally not stated. When you talk about the passà © composà ©, the imperfect, or the present tense, for example, you mean of the indicative mood. Its only with other moods like subjunctive and conditional that the mood is stated explicitly.All m oods have a present tense, which is again not made explicit except in the indicative and participle (parentheses indicate what normally goes unsaid): present (indicative)(present) conditional(present) subjunctive(present) imperative(present) infinitivepresent participle So for example, the imperfect (indicative) and the imperfect subjunctive are two different moods of the same tense. On the other hand, the (present) conditional and the past conditional are two different tenses of the same mood. The verb timeline can help you understand this, because it lines up moods and tenses so that you can see how they all fit together. X axis Y axis verb form and basis of individual conjugations. Voil - now that you understand the basics of French verb conjugation, study the lessons on individual tenses and moods (linked from the verb timeline) to learn more, or visit my French grammar glossary. Tricky Subjects When you understand subject pronouns, tenses, moods, and how to conjugate  French verbs, youre in great shape. There are however some grammatical subjects which make conjugation a bit more difficult. Multiple Subjects When you have more than one subject, you have to figure out which  subject pronouns  would replace that group and then conjugate the verb accordingly. For example,  toi et moi  would be replaced by  nous, as would  David et moi.  Toi et lui  and  Michel et toi  would be replaced by  vous.  Lui et elle  or  Marc et Anne  would be replaced by  ils. The trick is to make this replacement in your head without actually saying it out loud, as denoted by the (parentheses):  Ã‚  Ã‚  Toi et moi (nous) pouvons le faire  Ã‚  Ã‚  You and I can do it  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul, Marie et moi (nous) mangeons  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paul, Marie, and I are eating  Ã‚  Ã‚  Toi et elle (vous) à ªtes en retard  Ã‚  Ã‚  You and she are late  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sophie et toi (vous) devez partir  Ã‚  Ã‚  You and Sophie have to leave  Ã‚  Ã‚  Luc et sa femme (ils) sont arrivà ©s  Ã‚  Ã‚  Luc and his wife have arrived  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lui et elle (ils) lisent beaucoup  Ã‚  Ã‚  He and she read a lot Subject +Object Pronoun In a construction with an  object pronoun, usually  nous  or  vous, there is sometimes a tendency to conjugate the verb according to it, rather than to the  subject pronoun, because the object directly precedes the verb. Though this tends to be a careless mistake made orally rather than a lack of understanding, its included here just as a little reminder.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Je vous ai donnà © la liste  Ã‚  Ã‚  I gave you the list  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Je vous avez donnà © la liste xx  Ã‚  Ã‚  Vous nous avez menti  Ã‚  Ã‚  You lied to us  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Vous nous avons menti xx Cest... qui The construction  cest  Ã‚  stressed pronoun  Ã‚  qui  makes many people - including at times native French speakers - want to use the third person singular verb conjugation because of  qui. But this is incorrect; in fact, the conjugation has to agree with the pronoun.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cest moi qui ai gagnà ©Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Its me that won  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Cest moi qui a gagnà © xx  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cest vous qui avez tort  Ã‚  Ã‚  Youre the one whos wrong  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Cest vous qui a tort xx  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cest nous qui allons le faire  Ã‚  Ã‚  Were the ones who are going to do it  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Cest nous qui va le faire xx Pronoun + Qui Similar to the  cest... qui  construction is a subject or  demonstrative pronoun  Ã‚  qui. Again, the  qui  makes people want to use the third person singular, but once again the conjugation has to agree with the pronoun.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Vous qui avez mangà © pouvez partir  Ã‚  Ã‚  Those of you who have eaten may leave  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Vous qui a mangà © pouvez partir xx  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ceux qui veulent aider doivent me voir  Ã‚  Ã‚  Those who want to help need to see me  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Ceux qui veut aider doivent me voir xx  Ã‚  Ã‚  Je cherche celles qui à ©tudient  Ã‚  Ã‚  Im looking for the ones who are studying  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Je cherche celles qui à ©tudie xx Collective Subjects Collective subjects can take the third person singular or plural:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Un tas de fleurs sont mortes / Un tas de fleurs est mort  Ã‚  Ã‚  A bunch of flowers died  Ã‚  Ã‚  Un grand nombre de livres ont disparu / Un grand nombre de livres a disparu  Ã‚  Ã‚  A large number of books disappeared Adverbs of Quantity Adverbs of quantity  take the third person singular or plural, depending on the number of the noun that follows:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Beaucoup dà ©tudiants sont arrivà ©s  Ã‚  Ã‚  A lot of students have arrived  Ã‚  Ã‚  Peu de pluie est tombà ©e  Ã‚  Ã‚  Little rain fell  Ã‚  Ã‚  Combien de livres y a-t-il  ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  How many books are there?Also see ...dentre... below. Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns  always take a third person conjugation (either singular or plural, depending on the number of the pronoun).  Ã‚  Ã‚  La plupart a dà ©cidà ©Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most have decided  Ã‚  Ã‚  Plusieurs sont perdus  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many are lost  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tout le monde est l  Ã‚  Ã‚  Everyone is thereAlso see ...dentre... ...dentre... When an  adverb of quantity  or  indefinite pronoun  is followed by  entre  Ã‚  personal pronoun, many non-native French speakers (including myself) want to conjugate the verb according to the personal pronoun. But this is incorrect - in this construction, the verb has to be conjugated to agree with what comes before  entre, not what comes after.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Certains dentre vous ont oublià ©Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some of you forgot  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Certains dentre vous avez oublià © xx  Ã‚  Ã‚  Beaucoup dentre nous sont en retard  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many of us are late  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Beaucoup dentre nous sommes en retard xx  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chacun dentre vous peut le faire  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each one of you can do it  Ã‚  Ã‚  xx Chacun dentre vous pouvez le faire xx

How to Cure a Hangover After a College Party

How to Cure a Hangover After a College Party The history of alcohol is a bit sketchy. While no one knows exactly when the first alcoholic drink was developed, archeologists have found proof of a fermented drink made from rice, honey and fruit being consumed 9,000 years ago. The date alcohol was invented may not now be known but one thing is – the following day the hangover was discovered. Since then, people have been searching for the perfect fix. Top 5 Hangover Cures Here weve collected the Top 5 Hangover cures history has to offer as well as a look back to some that have (thankfully) stayed buried in the past. H2-Oh My Aching Head Whatever hangover cure you try, be sure water plays a role. Alcohol dehydrates your entire body and what it really needs is to replace that lost fluid. So begin your day by sipping – not chugging – a tall glass of water. Pro tip: drink water in between alcohol drinks. Toast Tea The healing powers of a simple breakfast have long been heralded as a hangover cure. In 1896, writer Guy Beringer wrote an article extolling the virtues of a mid morning meal as a hangover cure. He insisted it would make life brighter for Saturday-night carousers and could sweep away the cobwebs of the week. While the thought of food may not be especially appealing first thing The Morning After, having some carbs in your stomach can help ease the roller coaster of nausea. Including a beverage like plain tea or even ginger ale can also help to settle the stomach. Plop, Plop, Fizz, Fizz Effervescent tablets like Alka Seltzer have been a hangover standby for years. The fizzing bubbles and sodium bicarbonate (aka Baking Soda) will help to settle your stomach but make sure you dont bolt the glass down like a shot. The aspirin and citric acid could irritate your stomach if you drink it too fast. Get in Touch With Your Feminine Side Taking pain relievers developed for PMS can help with hangovers as well. Pain killers include a mix of pain relievers, diuretics and caffeine to help with cramping, pain and bloating. Each of them also helps to alleviate the symptoms of a hangover more effectively than pain relievers on their own. Gentle Exercise While this isnt the time to start training for your Iron Man marathon, some slow and gentle exercise can help the Morning After. Do something simple like stretching or a short walk to get your blood moving. This should only be done once youve had some water and a small amount of food. If you begin to feel dizzy or nauseous, rest and have some more water before trying it again. Weird Hangover Cures From History Every culture has their own rich history of how to cure a hangover. Throughout history, every corner of the globe has offered up their own version of a magical cure. While these five cures have stood the test of time to achieve mainstream acceptance, other cultural cures havent quite caught on. An ancient Scottish cure is called the Highland Fling. Heat a pint of buttermilk and add in a tablespoon of cornstarch. Season with salt and pepper and drink while still warm. Romanians swear by eating tripe – a cows stomach boiled in a salty vegetable broth and seasoned with vinegar and cream. Some swear it cures a hangover by expelling the poisons while others insist the thought of having to have it the next morning keeps your drinking under control the night before. One home remedy from Puerto Rico calls for the patient to run a slice of lemon or lime under their drinking arm before they head out for the night. The Ancient Romans – notorious for the drinking and excess – prescribed a breakfast of sheep lungs and owl eggs to cure the morning after headache. American cowboys back in the day used to shake off the excess from the night before by starting their day off with a special tea brewed with rabbit droppings. Although these cures are more likely to result in laughter from friends than actual help, the fact is that only one thing can actually cure a hangover – time and water. A hangover is your bodys way of trying to rid itself of the poison – er, lovely alcohol – you were nice enough to share with it the previous evening. While trying the hangover cures from this article may help shorten your hangover, the best bet in the future is to simply not drink to excess or schedule the following day off from work so you can rest and get plenty of fluids. Have a surefire hangover cure thats worked for you in the past? Share it in comments. Image credit: Warner Bros Pictures.

Warrant less wire tapping violation of rights Research Proposal

Warrant less wire tapping violation of rights - Research Proposal Example the United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967) in which wire-tapping was identified as unreasonable search that should only be conducted with a warrant (Duke University 1). There are, however other legal provisions that warrant wire-tapping violation of rights that the fourth amendment provides for, based on the 1967 judicial interpretation. â€Å"Inevitable-discovery doctrine and the good-faith doctrine† are examples that compromise the fourth and fifth amendments’ protection of privacy and application of associated information as evidence against a subject (Hess & Orthmann 95). It is therefore necessary to investigate validity of such exceptions and the proposed study will investigate the following research question. The study will use survey design and collect data through focus group. The group will consist of two sets of people: defense layers with a minimum of ten years experience and experience in a wire tapping case, and professors in human rights law. Discussion will focus on the participants’ knowledge on wire-tapping violation of rights and their opinion on validity of existing and possible laws that allows for wire-tapping violation of rights. Data will be analyzed

Long Australian (New South Wales) contract law scenario Is Seymour Essay

Long Australian (New South Wales) contract law scenario Is Seymour bound to his contracts with Agnes and with Krustylu - Essay Example However section 52 provides a general prohibition against misleading or deceptive conduct in commercial activities. Whether the violation of contract might also be breach of section 52 is a significant issue. The basis of such argument is the consideration that contractual promises are obligations which contracting parties have undertaken to fulfil, and to enter in to a contractual undertaking and subsequently fail to adhere to it is misleading with in meaning of section 52. There have been several cases (FN2, FN3 and FN4) in which consideration has been given to the scope of section 52. However, if the agreement is signed without consideration of moral principles guided or defined as per Australian contract law there is a sufficient ground for the client to seek for the relaxation. As the Seymour Skinner was forced to sign the agreement or contract which is nothing but violating the legal principles of contract, he is not bound to the contract with Agnes and Krustylu Television Studios to full extent. It has to be assessed whether an unfulfilled contractual promise itself as opposed to a defect in the promise constitutes a breach of section 52. Several cases revealed that an unfulfilled promissory contractual term to be declared as misleading needs to be argued under long Australian contract law (FN5). ... Breach of this contract is recognized by the law and legal remedies can be provided.Once the legality of the contract is maintained, then any party who signed the contract have to obey the contract. The agreement between Seymour and Agnes and Krustylu Television Studios clearly violated the legality, hence it comes under illegality of Australian contract law. Any person involved intentionally under this contract may be punished and the person who was forced to sign will be given sufficient chance to represent his case. Once the judicial body finds sufficient ground in defence of client, it may reconsider or review the contract and may declare the contract as void. (2) This contract comes under violation of principle of performance and breach. Australian courts have not definitively established the non-fulfilment of a contractual promise as conduct itself being misleading with in section 52 (FN7). As long as the "conduct" definition (FN8 and FN9) is satisfied, the person violating or non-fulfilling contractual promise will be charged under misleading conduct. Other wise section 52 of Australian trade Practices act relaxes the condition for client. It will provide enough opportunity for client to represent his case and show sufficient proof of not meeting the definition of "conduct" by the other party under the contract. (3) This contract has not obeyed the principle of undue influence. Seymour has been put under pressure to sign the contract. Even though Seymour Skinner admits that his mother was behind his successful career, it is not proper to expect that Seymour should sign a trade contract in favour of his mother Agnes. As it is the responsibility of any mother to shape the career of her children it is not to be linked with trade

Important Of Sight For The Purpose Of Survival Biology Essay

Important Of Sight For The Purpose Of Survival Biology Essay The importance of sight has been one of the most taken for granted systems in the human body. Sight, like the other four senses, plays an important role in the survival of an individual. In primitive humans, a loss of vision would make predator avoidance and food gathering difficult. Hence, there is an evolutionary pressure to maintain vision even when the eye sustains injury. While the eye is highly developed, certain post trauma mechanisms have evolved in such a way that our visual axis will not be altered, which would normally lead to instant blindness. Damage done to any normal part of the body usually leads to some sort of immunological response, including inflammation caused by the lymphocytes. Due to the physiology of the ocular system of mammals, the cornea cannot sustain inflammation, which can lead to the changing of the visual axis, thus leading to blindness. In primitive man, blindness could potentially lead to the individuals death. In order to prevent this, certain immu nological responses are suppressed in the cornea, allowing vision to remain. Keratitis is the clinical diagnosis of inflammation of the cornea, which if left untreated, can lead to blindness of the patient. This paper will use the Darwinian Medical approach and the Adaptationist Program to discuss the implications of the suppressed immune response in development and treatment of keratitis and the various microbial and mechanical causes thereof. In order to understand topics covered in this paper, a basic explanation of structures of the eye, their functions, as well as mechanisms and associated pathogens must be explained. Keep in mind, what will be mentioned is a buildup all to save the visual axis. The main anatomical focuses of the eye for this paper are the cornea and the anterior chamber. Concluding this will be a brief description of Darwinian Medicine and the Adaptationist Program. The cornea has two main functions and is composed of five layers. It acts as a protective membrane for the eye. The five layers consist of the following, in order from anterior to posterior, an external stratified squamous epithelium, an anterior limiting membrane (Bowmans membrane, the basement membrane o the stratified epithelium), the stroma, a posterior limiting membrane (Descemets membrane, the basement membrane of the endothelium), and an inner simple squamous endothelium. 1. The main functions of the cornea are to act as a protective membrane as well as to be the transparent window that allows light to enter through the eye to the retina. This unique transparency is due to the uniformity of the cell structure, being devoid of blood vessels, and being in a constant state of dehydration. If the epithelium is damaged, there is only a temporary regional build up of watery fluids in the stroma. However, if trauma is severe enough to expose any corneal layer below the epithelium, the cornea then becomes susceptible to infection of a variety of pathogens. These include, but are not limited to the following: bacteria, fungus, amoeba, and herpes virus.2. Without medical intervention, the basic stages of corneal infections are as followed: trauma, entrance of pathogen, inflammation of the cornea, ulceration, loss of vision, and even possibly loss of the eye. Located between the endothelium of the cornea and the iris, is a fluid filled cavity called the anterior chamber. The anterior chamber of the eyeball is filled with thick liquid-like substance called the aqueous humor. Its primary function is to maintain a normal intraocular pressure as well as provide nutrition for the tissues with no veins attached to them. In the anterior chamber, specifically the aqueous humor, there is a presence of a wide variety of immunoglobulins, as well as a wide variety of immunosuppressive substances such as transforming-growth-factor- Ã‚ ¢ and macrophage-migration-inhibitory-factor. A theory deemed Anterior-chamber associated immune deviation will be discussed later in this paper alongside with ocular-immune privilege. 3. The Darwinian Medical approach looks at both proximate, biological causes, as well as the ultimate, evolutionary causes to explain a disease or an immune function such as a fever. Ultimate causes are usually more complex in their explanations, which include defense, infection, novel environment, genes, design compromise, and evolutionary legacy all of which are evolutionary driven by four forces: natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift. Evolutionary causes of an excessive and uncontrolled defense mechanism can affect the risk of the disease. Other risk factors include losing the evolutionary arms race, the preservation of an allele that is harmful, and the result of evolutionary constraints. While keratitis is classified as an infliction, it is actually an immune response related to the infiltration of a pathogen in the cornea. As stated above, keratitis is the inflammation of the cornea. Symptoms include mild to sever pain in the eye, redness of the eye, opaque cornea, photosensitivity, and tearing. Clinical diagnosis of keratitis is done through examination using a slit lamp and proper illumination, Fluorescein stain to detect superficial corneal lesions, and laboratory examinations of corneal scrapings to detect pathogens. 2. Inflammation caused by pathogens is potentially harmful leading up to corneal ulceration, loss of the visual axis, and potentially blindness. The inflammation however is the lesser of two evils, for without having this immune response, the sight of the infected would be doomed to blindness. While this is true, an eyes last-ditch effort to remove the pathogen leads to over-inflammation and ulceration of the cornea. At that point, unless a corneal transplant is done alongside with medicine to kill the pathogen, the eye has given up and the host goes blind. To regulate inflammation and prevent ulceration, it has been hypothesized that there is design compromise called ocular immune privilege in the eye that regulates inflammation up to a certain point. This will be discussed later. The epidemiological qualities of keratitis fluctuate etiologically as well as geographically. Keratitis has risen in both developing countries as well as modernized countries, afflicting people worldwide with no restrictions based on economic status. Thousands of patients each year are diagnosed with some form of pathogenic keratitis, having each pathogen found in particular environments found worldwide. Anyone involved in agriculture is usually at risk for fungal keratitis. Anyone wearing contacts are at an even higher risk for not only fungal keratitis, but also bacterial and amoeba induced keratitis. However, anyone who has any sort of ocular trauma led to lesions in the cornea is susceptible to any form of microbial keratitis. 2. The evolutionary legacy of ocular immune privilege is the result of evolutionary constraints and design compromises. In order to preserve the function of the eye, inflammation is regulated by the hosts adaptive immunity, specifically called ocular immune privilege. Immune privilege has been recognized in only three organs; the testes and ovaries, the brain, and the eye. 5. Coincidentally, these are some of the most important organs in the body related to survival and spreading of ones genome. Adaptive immunity is compromised of lymphocytes that throughout life generate unique receptor molecules that recognize with extraordinary specificity molecules expressed by invading pathogens. 3. (pg 11). It is important to understand this concept to elucidate the mechanisms of ocular immune privilege and ACAID. Ocular Immune privilege was first described about 130 years ago. However, its importance was not recognized until the early 1940s by P.B. Medawar and his colleagues. During the 1970s, it was discovered that ocular immune privilege was caused by anatomical, physiological, and immunoregulatory processes, which prevent the introduction and expression of immune-mediated inflammation. Many ophthalmological researchers agree that ocular immune privilege is an adaptation for reducing immune-mediated injury to ocular cells that have limited or no capacity for regeneration.6. The three major mechanisms of ocular immune privilege are as followed: (1) there are anatomical, cellular, and molecular barriers in the eye; (2) eye-derived immunological tolerance (ACAID); and (3) immune suppressive microenvironment in the eye. 5. Anterior chamber-associated immune deviation, or ACAID, is directly related to the ocular immune privilege theory. ACAID is characterized by impaired antigen-specific delayed -type hypersensitivity and reduced production of complement fixing antibodies. 3. It is an observable fact that allows the antibody response but not the cellular responses mentioned above. 5. The discovery happened when there was a prolonged survival of genetically different transplanted tissue survived in the anterior chamber of the eye. The failure of the immune system to bring forth an immunological response composes the characteristics of immune privilege. This is the reason why corneal transplants are one of the most successful, and least rejected tissue transplant clinically practices. Most tissue transplants are rejected due to inflammation however, the cornea has a weaker immune response caused by low antigenicity, the difference between corneal versus other tissue grafts. 7. The mechanisms of ACAID involve both the eye and the spleen. Transforming Growth factor TGF- Ã‚ ¢2 and thrombospondind TSP-1 located in the anterior chamber are involved in the initiation of mediation of ACAID. Through this, there is an attraction of regionally located natural killer T cells, which bind to CDQd molecules to present the antigens. When these cells come in contact with marginal zone B cells, clusters are formed which then differentiate into ACAID-inducing regulatory T cells. 5. A recent discovery made by Molly E. Skelsy and colleagues, concluded that  Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ T cells are needed for ocular immune privilege and corneal graft survival. The study used mice treated with anti- Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ Ab failed to develop ACAID concluding the injection of spleen cells. It was concluded that these T cells were required for the creation of regulatory T cells. By blocking the creation of  Ã‚ Ã‚ ¤ T cells, Skelsey showed that there was a profound increase in corneal transplant reje ctions. 8. Another recent discovery was that thymocytes, cells created by thymus that generate into T lymphocytes, are also necessary for the induction of ACAID. Thus the sustainment of immune privilege in the eye is done through the mutual aid of various cells from organs other than the eye itself. 5. The adaptive immunity is expressed in the form of humoral immunity mediated by antibodies produced by B lympocytes, and in the form of cellular immunity mediated by T lymphocytes. 3. (pg 15) Clearly, ocular immune privilege isnt something that just arose out of nowhere. It has been an evolutionary legacy, because whatever beneficial implications it had, leading up to ACAID, must have been immediately beneficial for it to exist throughout the evolution of many mammals such as humans and even mice. In 2008, Xiaoyong Yuan and colleagues did a study to compare the gene expression patterns in uninfected and fungus-infected mouse corneas at the onset of Candida albicans fungal keratitis. Candida ablican related corneal infections cause an inflammatory response, which has been known to permanently impair vision in half of all eyes affected, including those with therapy. Infected eyes were observed and corneal transcriptomes were categorized to suggest pathways contributing to corneal inflammation during Candida related keratitis. Through the use of gene microarray, the hosts gene expression during the early stages of this keratitis was also observed in mouse models. RNA isolated from the corneas one day after inoculation were used for reverse transcription of the RNA which would then be used in a quantitative real-time RT-PCR to multiply the amount of DNA created. Gene expression levels were calculated for both the experimental group and the control group. When comparing the two groups, a total of 45,102 genes were detected. Of those genes, 3,977, roughly 8.82% of the infected corneas were significantly regulated. Of those genes, 1987 were upregulated and 1,990 were down-regulated. A total of 3.71% were differentially expressed, 1,075 being upregulated and the other 597 being down-regulated. Specifically, there were 30 different genes being upreglated more than 100 fold. These genes were categorized as chemokines, metalloproteinases, interleukin cytokines, leukocyte chemotaxis and surface molecules, Ig recept ors, Neuro-hormone mediatiors and many others. Simply stated, these gene expressions suggest that microbial keratitis involves the synchrony of various host processes that affect inflammatory and immune responses, intercellular communication, and cellular metabolism in other words, ocular immune privilege and ACAID. 9. Keratitis is a microbial infliction occurring globally. Bacteria, parasites, virus, and fungus cause the four main microbial causes for infection. These microbes are currently winning the at arms race due to an increased virulence and re-infection after treatment. At the same time, because there have been changes in mans history, various novel environments have been associated with the etiology of all these infections. Looking at a study in a referral centre in South India from September 1999 through August 2002, MJ Bharathi and colleagues observed and calculated the statistics of keratitis in that referral centre. Of 3183 corneal scrapings evaluated, 1095(34.4%) were fungal related, 1043(32.77%) were bacterial related, 33(1.04%) were acanthamoeba related and 76(2.39) were both bacterial and fungal related. Of the 1043 bacterial related infections, the predominant isolated bacteria were Streptococcus. Males were 56.76% of cases and females were 43.24%, thus showing that sex doesnt af fect the infiltration rate. In the study, 60.2% patients were over the age of 50 were affected significantly more than patients under the age of 50. Roughly 16.97% of corneal injuries were due to soil/sand, compared to the 11.03% caused by other materials, showing a statistical significance between the two. Seasons also affected the rate of infections showing a lower incidence of bacterial keratitis from the months of June to September. 10. The epidemiology of bacterial keratitis varies based on geography. One could acquire keratitis from numerous gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria, such as Serratia, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus. Once the bacteria has touched base with the cornea, it colonizes the hosts cells by using adhesins at the surface of the epithelium. The adherence of these three bacteria to the corneal epithelium is significantly higher than any other bacteria, which explains their high frequency of isolation. Several bacteria have also displayed adhesins on pili and nonfimbriae structures to recognize carbohydrates on host cells. Recently, there have been emerging cases of resistance among pathogens, requiring the emersion of a stronger antibacterial to eradicate it. 11. The advent of contact lenses has created a novel environment for the infiltration of many bacterial pathogens. In the United States, there are approximately 25,000 cases of infectious keratitis annually. There are roughly 2-4 infections per 10,000 soft contact lenses users, and 10-20 infections per 10,000 extended-wear contact lenses users. 14. A study done by T. Bourcier and colleagues has identified predisposing factors of bacterial keratitis. After analyzing 300 cases, contacts were the main risk factor, occurring in 50.3% of the study group, with 83% of bacteria being gram positive, and 17% being gram negative. 12. Another study of a case report done by Konstantinos Tsaousis and colleagues concluded that the incidence of bacterial keratitis can be reduced by maintaining high standards of lens hygiene and following the recommended guidelines to safely wearing contacts. 13. In the past, fungal keratitis has been a major ophthalmological problem in the tropical regions of the world. 16. Of all of the fungus related to keratitis, there are two classifications of infiltrates yeast and filamentous fungi. The three main isolates of fungus in fungal keratitis are Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Candida. While the most common of isolate reported has been Aspergillus, ranging from 27-64%, Fusarium comes to a close second (6-32%). Like bacterial keratitis, contact lenses wearers are at a higher risk of fungal infection. In recent news, on March 8, 2006, the CDC began an investigation of the use of Bausch Lomb ReNu contact lens solution. The solution had been related to a series of 130 confirmed cases of Fusarium Keratitis, which resulted in 37 corneal transplant surgeries. Most fungal related incidences however are usually related to agriculture. Since fungus are found in soil and on plants, the probability of infection after ocular trauma increases if one is tendi ng to their crops. Once the fungus accesses the corneal stroma, they multiply and cause tissue necrosis leading to the onset of keratitis and the loss of stromal opacity. 15. Acanthamoeba related keratitis is usually derived from standing water or mud, with an increased risk in contact users. Incidence per million contact lens users includes 333 in Hong Kong, 1 in USA and 149 in Scotland 14. The abnormally high incidence in Scotland is due to the fact that there are many water towers, holding standing water, a novel environment for the acanthamoeba. Survival in the wild is not only based on ones ability to escape a predator, but also ones ability to detect the predator. The up keeping the visual axis is one of the most important abilities of the eyes immune abilities for without sight, many mammals would be at disadvantage. Keratitis, the inflammation of the cornea, has probably been around since the dawn of man, and more specifically, the dawn of agriculture. If injury to the eye were to be sustained, the cornea would become inflamed. Normally, corneal cellular layers would be impaired, leading to a loss of the visual axis. However, it has been observed that there is a key mechanism that has developed over time in order to save ones sight. There is an ocular immune privilege, considered to be an evolutionary legacy as well as a design compromise, in the anterior chamber of the eye, which limits certain immune functions to prevent the loss of vision. The microbial pathogens cause these infections ranges from bacterial, to funga l, viral, and amoebic have been detected around the world, causing countless keratitis infections. Novel environments, such as contact lenses, have created the perfect environment for these pathogens to culture on especially if proper care protocols havent been taken. While most of these infections are treatable, in the long term, the microbes are winning the at arms race. With increase resistance to anti-bacterials/fungals, pathogens will only become more virulent. From an epidemiological standpoint, microbial keratitis poses a serious threat for future infected patients, occurring world-wide. Mescher, Anthony L. PhD. (2010). Junqueiras Basic Histology: Text Atlas, 12e. In accessmedicine. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx?aID=6183284searchStr=cornea#6183284. Biswell, Roderick MD. (2008). Vaughan Asburys General Ophthalmology, 17e. In accessmedicine. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx?aID=3090961searchStr=cornea#3090961. Streilein, J.W. et al, 1999: Immune Response and the Eye. Karger, Switzerland Nesse, R. M. and Williams, G.C. 1994: p.x, Why We Get Sick. The New Science of Darwinian Medicine, Vintage, New York Junko Hori. (July 16, 2008). Mechanisms of immune privilege in the anterior segment of the eye: what we learn from corneal transplantation. In PubMed Central Journal List. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2802514/?tool=pubmed. Niederkorn, Jerry Y. PhD, Streilein, Joan. PhD. (January 2010). History and Physiology of Immune Privilege. In Informa healthcare. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/09273940903564766. Junko Hori, MD, PhD1, Vega, Jose L. MD, PhD2, Sharmila Masli, PhD3. (October 2010). Review of Ocular Immune Privilege in the Year 2010: Modifying the Immune Privilege of the Eye. In Informa healthcare. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/09273948.2010.512696. Skelsey, Molly E., Mellon, Jessamee., Niederkorn, Jerry Y. . (2001). {{gamma}}{{delta}}T Cells Are Needed for Ocular Immune Privilege and Corneal Graft Survival. In The Journal of Immunology. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://www.jimmunol.org/cgi/reprint/166/7/4327. Xiaoyong Yuan, Mitchell, Bradley M., and Wilhelmus, Kirk R. (September 18, 2008). Gene profiling and signaling pathways of Candida albicans keratitis. In PubMed Central Journal List. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2562425/. Bharathi MJ, Ramakrishnan R, Vasu S, Meenakshi R, Shivkumar C, Palaniappan R. Epidemiology of bacterial keratitis in a referral centre in South India. Indian J Med Microbiol 2003;21:239-45 OBrien, T P . (February 2003). Management of bacterial keratitis: beyond exorcism towards consideration of organism and host factors. In Cambridge Ophthalmological Symposium. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v17/n8/full/6700635a.html. Bourcier T, Thomas F, Borderie V, Chaumeil C, Laroche L . (January 10, 2003). Bacterial keratitis: predisposing factors, clinical and microbiological review of 300 cases. In PubMed Central Journal List. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1771775/?tool=pubmed. Tsaousis K.T., Sakkias G., Kozeis N., Tahiaos P. . (July 19, 2010). A Management Dilemma: Infectious Keratitis Associated with Soft Contact Lens Use and Dubious Treatment Compliance. In PubMed Central Journal List. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2935133/?tool=pubmed. Trevor John Mills, MD, MPH. (December 2, 2009). Corneal Ulceration and Ulcerative Keratitis. In Emedicine from WebMD. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/798100-overview. Daljit Singh, MBBS, MS, DSc. (June 12, 2008). Keratitis, Fungal. In Emedicine from WebMD. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1194167-overview. Gopinathan, Usha Ph.D et al . (August 2002). The Epidemiological Features and Laboratory Results of Fungal Keratitis: A 10-Year Review at a Referral Eye Care Center in South India. In Cornea, The Journal of Cornea and External Disease. Retrieved 10/1/10, from http://journals.lww.com/corneajrnl/Abstract/2002/08000/The_Epidemiological_Features_and_Laboratory.4.aspx.

Health Campaign Essay

Part I of this paper examined childhood obesity as a public health issues that faces the state of Texas. Further, the paper dwelt on the importance of addressing this public health issues because it has an impact on the lives of the children at the community, state, and national levels. Moreover, the paper also identified the models and systems that have found use in the determination and of childhood obesity, along with the associated vital statistics involved, and management care. The research paper revealed how prevalence in childhood obesity in the state of Texas increased from 5. % to 10. 9% for children between the ages of 7 to 12 between 1970 and 1995. In an effort to address this public health issues, community organizations, the state of Texas as well as the federal government have also played a pivotal role in taking initiatives to help address this epidemic. At the community level, local agencies including health clinics and community centers have all been actively involved in the fight against childhood obesity. Parents, schools, and the community are all charged with the responsibility of creating awareness about the childhood obesity epidemic. State agencies that are dealing with obesity in Texas include the Texas Obesity Research Center and the Health and Human Commission. At the national level, The Center for Disease Control and Prevention and the National Childhood Obesity Foundation has been instrumental in the fight against childhood obesity. At the national level, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) has provided two yardsticks with which to divide children above the age of 2 years who are also overweight. In the first category, those children who are above the 85th quartile of obesity are often identified as being within the at-risk level. In the second category, those who are above the 95th quartile are categorized as being in the severe level. Perhaps we need to ponder on the question of why there are more overweight children in the state of Texas in comparison with the national average. The main reason behind this could be the fact that compared with the larger United States, Texas is by and large more ethnically diverse. African Americans and Hispanic children have been seen to present a higher prevalence of obesity in comparison with the other children, such as the Whites or Caucasians. Although the number of African Americans in the population of Texas is a reflection of the national percentage (in this case, the African Americans in the Texas population are 11. 5% while at the national level, the figure is 12. 3%), however, there are more Hispanics in the state of Texas in comparison with the national average (that is, 32% vs. 12. 5%). Nearly 40% of the children in the various public schools in Texas are of Hispanic descent, with the White children and the African Americans accounting for a further 43% and 14% respectively. Target Population Accroding to the research findigns undertaken by the NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) between 2007 and 2008, 17 percent of children along with adolescents who were of the ages between 2 and 19 years were categorized as being obese. Further, the study revealed that obesity prevalence among this target group was also seen to rise between 1976 and 1980. Again, a similar trend was observed between 1999 and 2000 (CDC 2010). On the other hand, a survey undertaken among high school students in Texas indicated that nearly a third of them (28. 7 %) were either bese, or overweight ((Burns, Nyberg & Parker, 2007). In addition, the January 2009 state demographer of Texas indicates that by 2040, there shall be 15 million obese individuals in the state if at all no preventive measures are undertaken. This represents a threefold increase of the current population of obese individuals. Barclay (2010) contends that in 2007, the national prevalence rate of obesity among children in the US stood at 16. 4 %. What this appears to suggest is that the prevalence of obesity among children in the state of Texas is nearly double the national figure. Accordingly, a child in Texas is more likely to be obese that the average child in the United States. This could be attributed to the issue of race. For example, Texas has a higher percentage of African Americans and Hispanics than the national average. The two races have been shown to be more pre-disposed to obesity than any other race, and so the apparent variation in obesity rates in the state of Texas. The national infant mortality rate in the United States as of 2007 stood at 6. 3 deaths for every 1000 live births, according to statistics released by CDC (2007). On the other hand, in the same year, the infant mortality rates in the state of Texas stood at 6. 2 deaths for every 1000 live births (Texas Department of Health Services, 2007). There is the need for adopting sustainable intervention measures in as far as the issue of child obesity in the state of Texas at the community level if at all the prevalence rates of this epidemic are to reduce. One such intervention is the FFV (Fresh Fruit and Vegetable) Program. The aim of the FFVP is to ensure that school-age children have access to free vegetables and fruits all day long, while at school. The target group is therefore children of school-going age. They are normally encouraged to adopt healthy eating habits. In addition, the schools that takes part in the project avails a controlled setting in which the manipulation of the environment is possible. At the national level, the FFVP program is usually administered by the Food and Nutrition Service of the USDA. On the other hand, the Department of Agriculture in Texas is charged with the responsibility of administering this program at the state level (Jeffers, 2003). In Texas, the program administrator of the FFVP is responsible for managing and overseeing this program. The determination of the success of the FFVP program would be a reduction in plate waste amounts and increase in the consumption of vegetables and fruits. Intervention As a community-based response to the issue, including community-based planning, needs assessments, and selection of locally identified objectives, the community considered created a Get Out and Race in Racing campaign in order to increase physical activity in the community and respond the issue of obesity. There are economic factors and funding intervention strategies to address these issues. Each year the state spends in excess of $337 million on obesity-directly related diseases and conditions (Nevada State Health Division Bureau for Community Health, 2006). Campaigns will help the community members become aware of these costs and how these funds could be better used to promote health. Statewide partnerships with community and business members will be formed to seek ways to increase funds needed for the program. Funding interventions will include community, business, and school-held events to raise capital to include moneys and volunteers to assist with the program development and implementation, and ongoing evaluation. Schools will send home flyers asking for parent participation and contributions. Students will become involved in all efforts to raise conscious awareness of the problem, proposed solution, and needs for funding. Social marketing will have an important role in promoting public health related to the chosen issue of obesity. Social marketing will be needed to ensure parent and community awareness of the problems and proposed solutions. To assist with marketing agendas, meetings with parents and teachers will be held at the schools to ensure that parents are provided with information about health, obesity prevention, and physical exercise. These meetings will take place regularly to market the program while providing information. Efforts are designed to facilitate economic support as well as a commitment to adhering to the program (Elsawy & Higgins, 2010). At the institutional levels also, the school heads are called upon to ensure that they incorporate physical exercise in the school’s curricula as another strategy to facilitate in the reduction of obesity among children. In addition, churches and community centers in Texas could also be involved in the fight against obesity by way of forming educational programs aimed at creating awareness on the incidence, prevalence, and dangers of this epidemic, with the children and their parents as the target group. Lepard (2010) has underscored the need to make use of video games in school and at community centers with a view to helping reduce childhood obesity in the state of Texas. In addition, such educational programs also require incorporating behavioral change, such as exercise and the adoption of healthy eating habits (Cole et al, 2000). For purposes of sustainability of such programs as the FFVP, there is the need to ensure that a reliable source of funding has been identified. In this case, the USDA and the CDC are good examples of government agencies that are in support of such programs. Conclusion Obesity in Texas and United States is an important aspect of today’s health and it continues to rise. Awareness is being pushed through the state, local and national level to help fight this disease. Having the community, schools and family involved with ways to prevent and cure obesity can help fight the disease. Following the proper nutritional guide and exercise can have the start of a health life style.